![]() ![]() Similarly, although those who received the stale popcorn generally reported that it didn’t taste good, those who received the large container still ate an average of 34% more than those who received the medium container ( Wansink & Kim, 2005). Among those who received the fresh popcorn, those who received the large container ate 45% more than those who received the medium container. In one study with a 2×2 design, adult moviegoers were randomly assigned to receive either a free medium (120 grams) or large (240 grams) container of popcorn that was either fresh or stale (14 days old). For example, a series of experimental studies by Wansink, et al have found that doubling the size of a package increased consumption by about 18% to 25% for meal-related foods and about 30% to 45% or more for a number of snack-related foods ( Wansink, 1996). ![]() A growing number of these studies demonstrate that adults and children consume more food and total energy when served large portions relative to small portions ( Rolls, 2003 Small, Lane, Vaughan, Melnyk, & McBurnett, 2013). To test causality, a number of research groups have performed experimental studies of the effects manipulating portion sizes on intake. However, these epidemiological studies cannot demonstrate a causal role of portion size in promoting increased intake or obesity. ( Nielsen & Popkin, 2003 Young & Nestle, 2002) Substantial increases have occurred both in restaurant and fast food portions and among foods consumed in the home ( Nielsen & Popkin, 2003), suggesting an opportunity for parents to control children’s portions in the home setting. Ecologically, the obesity epidemic has accompanied concurrent increases in portion sizes. Substantial evidence has accumulated to support this contention. The first three of these strategies depend on the assumption that portion sizes and/or perceived portion sizes influence food consumption. Although the focus of this review is on strategies for portion control in children, findings from studies in adults are also included where relevant and where data from children are more limited. In a review of the extant literature, at least five promising environmental strategies emerge to improve portion control in children: (1) using tall, thin, and small volume glasses and mugs, (2) using smaller diameter and volume plates, bowls and serving utensils, (3) using plates with rims, (4) reducing total television and other screen watching and (5) reducing or eliminating eating while watching television and/or other screens. Some evidence suggests this may be an effective strategy for helping children control the amounts of food, beverages and energy they consume. Evidence is mounting that small changes in the eating environment may alter food choices and reduce food and energy consumption, without cognitive awareness. These external cues may result from social, physical, or policy factors that influence the environments that accompany eating. Recently, researchers have started to identify environmental factors that may act as external cues to influence intake without requiring conscious, cognitive control ( Thaler & Sunstein, 2008 Wansink, 2004) - what has been called “mindless eating” ( Wansink, 2006). ![]() Relatively less attention, however, has been paid to environmental factors influencing what and how much is eaten without conscious awareness. Because children and adolescents display less self-control and future orientation than adults ( Green, Fry, & Myerson, 1994), these approaches may be more difficult for children and adolescents than for adults. These interventions are thought to succeed through planned, cognitively driven, intentional behaviors including self-monitoring, goal setting, rewarding successful behavior change, cognitive reframing, problem solving, and parenting skills ( Dietz & Robinson, 2005). This has been particularly true for weight control interventions ( Dietz & Robinson, 2005 Epstein, Myers, Raynor, & Saelens, 1998 Epstein, Valoski, Wing, & McCurley, 1990, 1994 Stuart, 1967 Summerbell et al., 2003). Since the 1960’s behavioral interventions to change eating behavior have primarily focused on exerting cognitive control over food choices and amounts of consumption – intentionally and consciously eating less of some foods and more of others, or a different mix of macronutrients and/or energy. ![]()
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